|
Doctor, as a title, originates from the Latin word of the same spelling and meaning. The word is originally an agentive noun of the Latin verb ''docēre'' (:dɔˈkeːrɛ) 'to teach'. It has been used as an honored academic title for over a millennium in Europe, where it dates back to the rise of the first universities. This use spread to the Americas, former European colonies, and is now prevalent in most of the world. Contracted "Dr" or "Dr.", it is used as a designation for a person who has obtained a doctoral graduate degree (i.e.. Ph.D., Ed.D). In contrast, M.D. and D.O. degrees are vocational degrees and thus not considered doctoral degrees. ==Origins== The doctorate (Latin: ''doceō'', I teach) appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach (Latin: ''licentia docendi'') at a medieval university. Its roots can be traced to the early church when the term "doctor" referred to the Apostles, church fathers and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible.〔 The right to grant a ''licentia docendi'' was originally reserved to the church which required the applicant to pass a test, to take oath of allegiance and pay a fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic. This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213 where it became a universal license to teach (''licentia ubiquie docendi'').〔 However, while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (''Baccalaureus''), it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the Magister and doctorate, both of which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching.〔 The earliest doctoral degrees (theology, law, and medicine) reflected the historical separation of all university study into these three fields. Over time the D.D. has gradually become less common and studies outside theology, law, and medicine have become more common (such studies were then called "philosophy", but are now classified as sciences and humanities – however this usage survives in the degree of Doctor of Philosophy). The Ph.D. was originally a degree granted by a university to learned individuals who had achieved the approval of their peers and who had demonstrated a long and productive career in the field of philosophy (in the broad sense of the term philosophy, the pursuit of knowledge). The appellation of "Doctor" (from Latin: teacher) was usually awarded only when the individual was in middle age. It indicated a life dedicated to learning, to knowledge, and to the spread of knowledge. The Ph.D. entered widespread use in the 19th century at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin as a degree to be granted to someone who had undertaken original research in the sciences or humanities. From there it spread to the United States, arriving at Yale University in 1861, and then to the United Kingdom in 1921. This displaced the existing Doctor of Philosophy degree in some Universities; for instance, the D.Phil. (higher doctorate in the faculty of philosophy) at the University of St Andrews was discontinued and replaced with the Ph.D. (research doctorate). However, some UK universities such as Oxford and Sussex (and, until recently, York) retain the D.Phil. appellation for their research degrees, as, until recently, did the University of Waikato in New Zealand. Historically, lawyers in most European countries were addressed with the title of doctor, and countries outside of Europe have generally followed the practice of the European country which had policy influence through modernization or colonialization. The first university degrees, starting with the law school of the University of Bologna (or glossators) in the 11th century, were law degrees and doctorates.〔Herbermann, et al. (1915). (Catholic Encyclopedia ). New May 26, 2008. García y García, A. (1992). ("The Faculties of Law )," ''A History of the University in Europe'', London: Cambridge University Press. Accessed May 26, 2008.〕 Degrees in other fields were not granted until the 13th century, but the doctorate continued to be the only degree offered at many of the old universities up until the 20th century. As a result, in many of the southern European countries, including Portugal, Spain and Italy,〔Portugal: (Alves Periera Teixeira de Sousa ). Accessed February 16, 2009; Italy (Studio Misuraca, Franceschin and Associates ). Accessed February 16, 2009.〕 lawyers have traditionally been addressed as “doctor,” 〔: (Hernandez & Cia ). Accessed February 16, 2009; Brazil: (Abdo & Diniz ). Accessed February 16, 2009 (see Spanish or Portuguese profile pages); Argentina: (Lareo & Paz ). Accessed February 16, 2009.〕 (as well as Macau in China).〔Macau: (Macau Lawyers Association ). Accessed February 16, 2009〕 The title of doctor for attorneys has not customarily been used in English-speaking countries where lawyers were not required to have a university degree and were trained by other attorneys by apprenticeship or in the Inns of Court.〔Stein, R. (1981). (The Path of Legal Education from Edward to Langdell: A History of Insular Reaction ), Pace University School of Law Faculty Publications, 1981, 57 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 429, pp. 430, 432, 434, 436〕 The exception being those areas where, up to the 19th century, civil law rather than common law was the governing tradition, including admiralty law, probate and ecclesiastical law, such cases were heard in the Doctor's Commons, and argued by advocates who held degrees either of doctor of civil law at Oxford or doctor of law at Cambridge. As such, lawyers practicing common law in England were not doctoral candidates and had not earned a doctorate. When university degrees became a prerequisite to become a lawyer in England, the degree awarded was the legum baccalaureus, or bachelor of laws, which is abbreviated LL.B. In countries where holders of the first law degree traditionally use the title of doctor (for example, Peru, Brazil, Macau, Portugal, Argentina, and Italy),〔Peru: (Hernandez & Cia ). Accessed February 16, 2009; Brazil: (Abdo & Diniz ). Accessed February 16, 2009 (see Spanish or Portuguese profile pages); Macau: (Macau Lawyers Association ). Accessed February 16, 2009; Portugal: (Alves Periera Teixeira de Sousa ). Accessed February 16, 2009; Argentina: (Lareo & Paz ). Accessed February 16, 2009; and Italy (Studio Misuraca, Franceschin and Associates ). Accessed February 16, 2009.〕 J.D. holders who are attorneys may use the title of doctor in advertisements.〔(Dr. Ronald Charles Wolf ). Accessed February 16, 2009. Florida Bar News. (Debate over 'doctor of law' title continues ). Florida Bar Association, July 1, 2006.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Doctor (title)」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
|